Finance Management Essay

In a world without FIs the users of merged bullion in the frugality would g solid ground to approach straight off the sept savers of funds in put in to satisfy their borrowing bespeaks. This process would be extremely costly because of the up-front knowledge cost faced by potential bestowers. Cost inefficiencies would get with the naming of potential borrowers, the pooling of scummy savings into loans of sufficient size to finance in unifiedd activities, and the assessment of risk and dedicatement opportunities.Moreover, lenders would claim to manage the activities of borrowers over each loans life span. The net result would be an liberal allocation of resources in an economy. 3. Identify and explain three economic disbonuss that bethe likes of would dampen the flow of funds between category savers of funds and corporate users of funds in an economic world without pecuniary intermediaries. Investors generally be averse to purchasing securities directly because of (a) supervise cost, (b) liquid state cost, and (c) price risk. monitor lizard the activities of borrowers requires wide time, expense, and expertise. As a result, households would prefer to leave this activity to separates, and by definition, the resulting inadequacy of observe would increase the riskiness of drop in corporate debt and equity commercializes. The long-term nature of corporate equity and debt would likely run at least a portion of those households willing to lend m unrivaledy, as the preference of numerous for near-cash liquidity would dominate the extra returns which may be available.Third, the price risk of exercises on the secondary merchandises would increase without the knowledge flows and servicing commitd by high volume. 4. Identify and explain the two functions in which FIs may specialize that enable the sedate flow of funds from household savers to corporate users. FIs serve as conduits between users and savers of funds by providing a broke rage function and by engaging in the asset shift function. The brokerage function basin benefit twain savers and users of funds and apprise vary according to the faithful.FIs may set aside only operation services, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as discount brokerages, or they also may offer advisory services which help adulterate entropy cost, such as provided-line firms like Merrill Lynch. The asset transformation function is accomplished by issuing their cause securities, such as deposits and damages policies that atomic number 18 more than attractive to household savers, and using the proceeds to barter for the primary securities of corporations. Thus, FIs opt on the costs associated with the purchase of securities. 5.In what sense atomic number 18 the fiscal advances of FIs considered secondary securities, plot of ground the monetary claims of commercialised corporations atomic number 18 considered primary securities? How does the transformation process, or mediation, recoil the risk, or economic disincentives, to the savers? The funds raised by the fiscal claims issued by commercial corporations atomic number 18 used to invest in real assets. These pecuniary claims, which ar considered primary securities, be purchased by FIs whose financial claims therefore be considered secondary securities.Savers who invest in the financial claims of FIs argon indirectly put in the primary securities of commercial corporations. However, the nurture gathering and evaluation expenses, monitoring expenses, liquidity costs, and price risk of placing the investments directly with the commercial corporation be reduced because of the efficiencies of the FI. 6. Explain how financial institutions act as delegated monitors. What secondary benefits very much accrue to the entire financial system because of this monitoring process?By putting additional funds into financial institutions, single(a) investors give to the FIs the accountability of deciding who should receive the cash and of ensuring that the money is utilized properly by the borrower. In this sense the depositors bewilder delegated the FI to act as a monitor on their behalf. The FI undersurface collect culture more efficiently than someoneist investors. Further, the FI brush off utilize this reading to take a crap new products, such as commercial loans, that continually update the information pool.This more frequent monitoring process sends important informational signals to former(a) give wayicipants in the market, a process that reduces information imperfection and asymmetry between the ultimate sources and users of funds in the economy. 7. What are five general areas of FI specialness that are caused by providing various services to sectors of the economy? First, FIs collect and process information more efficiently than individual savers. Second, FIs show secondary claims to household savers which a good deal cave in better liquidity characte ristics than primary securities such as quities and stick arounds. Third, by diversifying the asset base FIs provide secondary securities with lower price-risk conditions than primary securities. Fourth, FIs provide economies of scale in transaction costs because assets are purchased in larger come ups. Finally, FIs provide maturity date intermediation to the economy which get outs the introduction of additional types of investment contracts, such as mortgage loans, that are financed with short-term deposits. 8. How do FIs solve the information and related self-assurance costs when household savers invest directly in securities issued by corporations?What are agency costs? Agency costs occur when owners or managers take actions that are not in the scoop out provokes of the equity investor or lender. These costs typically result from the failure to adequately monitor the activities of the borrower. If no other lender performs these tasks, the lender is subject to agency costs as the firm may not satisfy the covenants in the lending agreement. Because the FI invests the funds of m whatever pocket-sized savers, the FI has a greater incentive to collect information and monitor the activities of the borrower. 9.What frequently is the benefit to the lenders, borrowers, and financial markets in general of the consequence to the information problem provided by the large financial institutions? One benefit to the solution process is the development of new secondary securities that allow even encourage improvements in the monitoring process. An example is the bound loan that is renewed more quickly than long-term debt. The renewal process updates the financial and operating information of the firm more frequently, thereby reducing the need for restrictive bond covenants that may be difficult and costly to implement. 10.How do FIs alleviate the problem of liquidity risk faced by investors who wish to invest in the securities of corporations? Liquidity risk o ccurs when savers are not able to sell their securities on demand. Commercial banks, for example, offer deposits that can be withdrawn at any(prenominal) time. Yet the banks make long-term loans or invest in illiquid assets because they are able to diversify their portfolios and better monitor the performance of firms that tolerate borrowed or issued securities. Thus individual investors are able to realize the benefits of investing in primary assets without accepting the liquidity risk of direct investment. 1. How do financial institutions help individual savers diversify their portfolio risks? Which type of financial institution is best able to achieve this goal? Money placed in any financial institution will result in a claim on a more diversified portfolio. Banks lend money to galore(postnominal) unlike types of corporate, consumer, and government customers, and insurance companies have investments in many different types of assets. Investment in a mutual fund may generate t he grea mental test diversification benefit because of the funds investment in a wide array of stocks and fixed income securities. 2. How can financial institutions invest in high-risk assets with funding provided by low-risk liabilities from savers? Diversification of risk occurs with investments in assets that are not perfectly substantiatingly correlated. One result of extensive diversification is that the average risk of the asset base of an FI will be less than the average risk of the individual assets in which it has invested. Thus individual investors realize some of the returns of high-risk assets without accepting the corresponding risk characteristics. 13.How can individual savers use financial institutions to reduce the transaction costs of investing in financial assets? By pooling the assets of many small investors, FIs can learn economies of scale in transaction costs. This benefit occurs whether the FI is lending to a corporate or retail customer, or purchasing asset s in the money and jacket crown markets. In either case, operating activities that are designed to deal in large volumes typically are more efficient than those activities designed for small volumes. 14. What is maturity intermediation?What are some of the ways in which the risks of maturity intermediation are managed by financial intermediaries? If net borrowers and net lenders have different optimal time horizons, FIs can service both sectors by matching their asset and liability maturities through on- and off-balance sheet hedging activities and bendable access to the financial markets. For example, the FI can offer the relatively short-term liabilities desire by households and also satisfy the demand for long-term loans such as home mortgages.By investing in a portfolio of long-and short-term assets that have variable- and fixed-rate components, the FI can reduce maturity risk exposure by utilizing liabilities that have similar variable- and fixed-rate characteristics, or by using futures, options, swaps, and other derivative products. 15. What are five areas of institution-specific FI specialness, and which types of institutions are some likely to be the service providers? First, commercial banks and other depository institutions are key players for the transmission of monetary indemnity from the central bank to the rest of the economy.Second, specific FIs often are identify as the major source of finance for genuine sectors of the economy. For example, SLs and savings banks traditionally serve the recognize needs of the residential real estate market. Third, life insurance and aid funds commonly are back up to provide mechanisms to transfer wealthiness across generations. Fourth, depository institutions efficiently provide payment services to benefit the economy. Finally, mutual funds provide designation intermediation by allowing small investors to purchase pieces of assets with large minimum sizes such as negotiable CDs and commercial repu tation issues. 6. How do depository institutions such as commercial banks help in the implementation and transmission of monetary policy? The Federal Reserve Board can involve directly the commercial banks in the implementation of monetary policy through changes in the reserve requirements and the discount rate. The open market sale and purchase of treasury securities by the Fed involves the banks in the implementation of monetary policy in a less direct manner. 17. What is meant by credit allocation order?What social benefit is this type of normal intended to provide? address allocation convention refers to the requirement faced by FIs to lend to certain sectors of the economy, which are considered to be socially important. These may complicate housing and farming. presumptively the provision of credit to make houses more affordable or farms more viable leads to a more stable and productive society. 18. Which intermediaries best follow through the intergenerational wealth t ransfer function? What is this wealth transfer process? spiritedness insurance and pension funds often receive special revenue relief and other subsidies to assist in the transfer of wealth from one generation to another. In effect, the wealth transfer process allows the accumulation of wealth by one generation to be transferred directly to one or more younger generations by establishing life insurance policies and trust sustenance in pension plans. Often this wealth transfer process avoids the full marginal tax treatment that a direct payment would incur. 19. What are two of the most important payment services provided by financial institutions?To what purpose do these services efficiently provide benefits to the economy? The two most important payment services are check alter and wire transfer services. Any breakdown in these systems would produce gridlock in the payment system with resulting harmful effects to the economy at both the domestic and potentially the international level. 20. What is denomination intermediation? How do FIs assist in this process? Denomination intermediation is the process whereby small investors are able to purchase pieces of assets that normally are sold only in large denominations.Individual savers often invest small amounts in mutual funds. The mutual funds pool these small amounts and purchase negotiable CDs which can only be sold in minimum increments of $100,000, but which often are sold in million dollar packages. Similarly, commercial paper often is sold only in minimum amounts of $250,000. Therefore small investors can benefit in the returns and low risk which these assets typically offer. 21. What is contradict externality? In what ways do the representence of minus externalities discharge the extra regulatory attention received by financial institutions?A negative externality refers to the action by one donationy that has an uncomely rival on some third party who is not part of the original transaction. For example, in an industrial setting, smoke from a factory that lowers environ property values may be viewed as a negative externality. For financial institutions, one concern is the contagion effect that can arise when the failure of one FI can cast doubt on the solvency of other institutions in that industry. 22. If financial markets operated perfectly and costlessly, would there be a need for financial intermediaries?To a certain extent, financial intermediation exists because of financial market imperfections. If information is available costlessly to all participants, savers would not need intermediaries to act as either their brokers or their delegated monitors. However, if there are social benefits to intermediation, such as the transmission of monetary policy or credit allocation, then FIs would exist even in the absence of financial market imperfections. 23. What is mortgage redlining? mortgage redlining occurs when a lender specifically defines a geographic area in which it refuses to make any loans.The term arose because of the area often was outlined on a map with a red pencil. 24. Why are FIs among the most regulated sectors in the world? When is net regulatory slant positive? FIs are required to enhance the efficient operation of the economy. Successful financial intermediaries provide sources of financing that fund economic ontogeny opportunity that ultimately raises the overall level of economic activity. Moreover, successful financial intermediaries provide transaction services to the economy that facilitate trade and wealth accumulation.Conversely, distressed FIs shit negative externalities for the entire economy. That is, the adverse impact of an FI failure is greater than just the loss to shareholders and other private claimants on the FIs assets. For example, the local market suffers if an FI fails and other FIs also may be thrown into financial distress by a contagion effect. Therefore, since some of the costs of the failure of an FI a re generally borne by society at large, the government intervenes in the watchfulness of these institutions to protect societys interests. This intervention takes the form of regulation.However, the need for regulation to minimize social costs may impose private costs to the firms that would not exist without regulation. This additional private cost is defined as a net regulatory burden. Examples include the cost of holding excess capital and/or excess reserves and the extra costs of providing information. Although they may be socially beneficial, these costs add to private operating costs. To the extent that these additional costs help to avoid negative externalities and to ensure the smooth and efficient operation of the economy, the net regulatory burden is positive. 5. What forms of protection and regulation do regulators of FIs impose to ensure their safety and soundness? Regulators have issued several(prenominal) guidelines to insure the safety and soundness of FIs a. FIs are required to diversify their assets. For example, banks cannot lend more than 10 percent of their equity to a single borrower. b. FIs are required to maintain minimum amounts of capital to cushion any unexpected losses. In the case of banks, the Basle standards require a minimum core and auxiliary capital of 8 percent of their risk-adjusted assets. c.Regulators have set up warrantee funds such as BIF for commercial banks, SIPC for securities firms, and state guaranty funds for insurance firms to protect individual investors. d. Regulators also engage in nightly monitoring and surveillance, such as on-site examinations, and request periodic information from the FIs. 26. In the transmission of monetary policy, what is the difference between inside money and outside money? How does the Federal Reserve Board try to fancy the amount of inside money? How can this regulatory position compel a cost for the depository financial institutions?Outside money is that part of the money supply directly produced and controlled by the Fed, for example, coins and currency. Inside money refers to bank deposits not directly controlled by the Fed. The Fed can influence this amount of money by reserve requirement and discount rate policies. In cases where the level of required reserves exceeds the level considered optimal by the FI, the inability to use the excess reserves to generate revenue may be considered a tax or cost of providing intermediation. 27. What are some examples of credit allocation regulation?How can this attempt to create social benefits create costs to the private institution? The qualified thrift lender test (QTL) requires thrifts to hold 65 percent of their assets in residential mortgage-related assets to retain the thrift charter. Some states have enacted usury laws that place maximum restrictions on the interest rates that can be charged on mortgages and/or consumer loans. These types of restrictions often create additional operating costs to the FI and almost certainly reduce the amount of profit that could be realized without such regulation. 8. What is the purpose of the groundwork Mortgage Disclosure impress? What are the social benefits desired from the regulation? How does the implementation of this decree create a net regulatory burden on financial institutions? The HMDA was passed by Congress to prevent discrimination in mortgage lending. The social benefit is to ensure that everyone who qualifies financially is provided the opportunity to purchase a house should they so desire. The regulatory burden has been to require a written statement indicating the reasons why credit was or was not granted.Since 1990, the federal regulators have examined millions of mortgage transactions from more than 7,700 institutions each calendar quarter. 29. What law has been passed specifically to protect investors who use investment banks directly or indirectly to purchase securities? Give some examples of the types of abuses for which protection is provided. The Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934 and the Investment Company Act of 1940 were passed by Congress to protect investors against possible abuses such as insider trading, lack of disclosure, outright malfeasance, and breach of fiduciary responsibilities. 30.How do regulations regarding barriers to entry and the scope of permitted activities affect the charter value of financial institutions? The profitability of existing firms will be increased as the direct and indirect costs of establishing competition increase. turn to costs include the actual physical and financial costs of establishing a art. In the case of FIs, the financial costs include raising the required minimum capital to receive a charter. Indirect costs include permission from regulatory authorities to receive a charter. Again in the case of FIs this cost involves acceptable leadership to the regulators.As these barriers to entry are stronger, the charter value for existing firms will be highe r. 31. What reasons have been apt(p) for the growth of investment companies at the expense of traditional banks and insurance companies? The late growth of investment companies can be attributed to two major factors a. Investors have demanded increased access to direct securities markets. Investment companies and pension funds allow investors to take positions in direct securities markets while still obtaining the risk diversification, monitoring, and transactional readiness benefits of financial intermediation.Some experts would argue that this growth is the result of increased mundanity on the part of investors others would argue that the ability to use these markets has caused the increased investor awareness. The growth in these assets is inarguable. b. Recent episodes of financial distress in both the banking and insurance industries have led to an increase in regulation and governmental oversight, thereby increasing the net regulatory burden of traditional companies. As su ch, the costs of intermediation have increased, which increases the cost of providing services to customers. 2. What are some of the methods which banking organizations have employed to reduce the net regulatory burden? What has been the effect on profitability? Through regulatory changes, FIs have begun changing the mix of business products offered to individual users and providers of funds. For example, banks have acquired mutual funds, have expanded their asset and pension fund management businesses, and have increased the security underwriting activities. In addition, legislation that allows banks to establish branches anywhere in the United States has caused a wave of mergers.As the size of banks has grown, an expansion of possible product offerings has created the potential for lower service costs. Finally, the emphasis in new-made years has been on products that generate increases in fee income, and the entire banking industry has benefited from increased profitability in re cent years. 33. What characteristics of financial products are necessary for financial markets to become efficient alternatives to financial intermediaries? Can you give some examples of the commoditization of products which were previously the sole property of financial institutions?Financial markets can replace FIs in the delivery of products that (1) have like harm, (2) serve a large number of customers, and (3) are sufficiently mum for investors to be comfortable in assessing their prices. When these three characteristics are met, the products often can be treated as commodities. One example of this process is the migration of over-the-counter(prenominal) options to the publicly traded option markets as trading volume grows and trading terms become standardized. 34. In what way has Regulation 144A of the Securities and Exchange Commission provided an incentive to the process of financial disintermediation?